The Making of Nationalism in Europe, Topic wise 10 Most Basic Questions, Class 10, History, CBSE Exam Notes
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Overview
The Making of Nationalism in Europe, Topic – wise 10 Most Basic Questions, Class 10, History, CBSE Exam Notes, takes you back to the mid – eighteenth century Europe, and makes you realise that in those times there were no Nations States in Europe, as we know them today. It was only in post mid – 18th century era, that idea of nation states emerged in Europe ! Let us see how.
Europe in mid – eighteenth Century
Q.1. Why the political territories of Europe until the mid – 18th century , did not experience any political unity or a sense of nationalism ?
Ans. In the mid 18th century Europe, there were no nation states. Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided in to kingdoms, duchies (territory of a duke or duchess), and cantons (administrative subdivision of a territory), whose rulers had their autonomous territories.
Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies where population was diverse. The people in these regions didn’t see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture. Often they spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups. For example, The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria Hungary, was a patchwork of many different regions and people.
Such differences among people of these monarchies did not let promote political unity and sense of nationalism among its people.
Q.2. Describe the regional and lingual diversity of The Habsburg Empire in Europe. Did this diversity hamper the process of political unity among its people?
Or, Q. The Habsburg Empire was patchwork of many different regions and people. Explain.
Ans. The Habsburg Empire in Europe that ruled over Austria – Hungary, was a patchwork of many different regions and people.
It included the Alpine regions – the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland – as well as Bohemia, Where the aristocracy was predominantly German speaking. It also included the Italian speaking provinces of Lombardy and Valentia.
In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke variety of dialects.
In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish.
Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasants peoples – Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats in the south, and Romans to the East in Transylvania.
Such regional and lingual differences in the Habsburg Empire did not let easily promote a sense of political unity among its people.
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
Q.3. Give a brief idea about the socio – political structure of Europe during 18th century.
Ans. Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class in Europe. The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They owned estates in the countryside and also town houses. They spoke French for purpose of diplomacy and in high society. There families were often connected by the ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was numerically a small group.
The majority of population in 18th century Europe, was made up of the peasantry. In West Europe, bulk of the land was farmed by the tenants and small owners. In eastern and central Europe, the pattern of land holding was characterised by vast estates which were cultivated by the serfs.
In England, industrialisation began in the second half of the 18th century. This led to the growth of towns and emergence of new social groups – (1) working class, and (2) middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen, and professionals in England.
(Note : In France and in parts of Germany, industrialisation began only during the 19th century.)
(Note : In central and eastern Europe, the newly emerged social group i.e. working class and middle class, were smaller in number till late 19th century.)
(Note : It was among the educated liberal middle class, that the ideas of national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges, gained popularity.)
What Did Liberal Nationalism Stand For ?
Q.4. Discuss the growth of liberal nationalism in Europe since 1789 French Revolution.
Or, Q. What did the term “Liberal Nationalism” stand for, in Europe ?
Ans. During French Revolution (late 18th century), liberalism in Europe stood for following :
- End of autocracy
- End of clerical privileges
- Making of constitution
- Representative government through parliament
During this period, liberalism as envisaged by the new middle class, stood for :
- freedom for the individual
- equality before law, and
- government by consent
19th century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.
Here, “equality before law” did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage.
Even in revolutionary France, the right to vote and to get elected was granted exclusively to property owning men. Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights. Only for a brief period, under the Jacobins all adult males enjoyed suffrage. Again, Napoleonic Code (1804) went back to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor.
Throughout the 19th and early 20th century, women and non propertied men organised opposition movements demanding equal political rights.
In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for :
- the freedom of markets, and
- the abolition of restrictions on the movements of goods and capital.
The newly emerged commercial classes of 19th century argued for the creation of a unified economic territory which would allow unhindered movement of goods, people and capital. A wave of economic nationalism, thus, further strengthened the national unification sentiments growing at that time.
Note : Ideas of national unity in early 19th century Europe, were closely allied to the ideology of liberalism.
Note : In 1834, a custom union or, Zollverein, was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. (This union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.)
A New Conservatism After 1815
Note : Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
Note : Conservatives believed that the established traditional institutions of state and society – like the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family – should be preserved.
Q.5 Discuss the idea of conservatism, which influenced the European governments after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815.
Ans. Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
Conservatives believed that established European traditional institutions of state and society (monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and family) should be preserved.
However, most conservatives didn’t propose a return to the society of pre revolution era. They were also aware that the modernisation (initiated by Napoleon), could strengthen traditional institutions like autocratic monarchies of Europe.
Note : The main features of modernisation, initiated by the Napoleon were :
- A modern army
- An efficient bureaucracy
- A dynamic economy
- The abolition of feudalism and serfdom
Q. 6. Define Conservatism.
Ans. It is a political philosophy that stresses the importance of tradition, established institutions and customs, and prefers gradual development to quick change.
Q.7. What was the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 and what were its outcome ?
Ans. The main objectives of Treaty of Vienna of 1815, were :
- To undo most of the changes that had come about in Europe during Napoleonic wars.
- To restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon.
- To create a new conservative order in Europe.
The Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was signed by the representatives of the European powers namely Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria; who had collectively defeated Napoleon. This congress was hosted by Austrian chancellor Duke Metternich. It aimed to draw a settlement for Europe. The outcomes of this treaty were :
A. The Bourbon dynasty (deposed during French revolution) was restored to power, and France lost territories, annexed under Napoleon.
B. A series of states were setup on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future. This was done in following ways :
- The kingdom of Netherlands (including Belgium) was set up in the north.
- Genoa was added to piedmont in the south.
- Prussia was given new territories on its western frontiers.
- Austria was given control of Northern Italy.
- German Confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched. However, part of Poland was given to Russia, and a portion of Saxony was given to Prussia.
Q.8. Write the criticism about the conservative regimes that were setup by the Treaty of Vienna in 1815. How did the liberal nationalists react to it ?
Ans. Conservative regimes setup in 1815 (by Treaty of Vienna) proved autocratic.
These conservative regimes didn’t tolerate criticism and dissent. They sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.
Most of these conservative regimes imposed censorship laws to control the content in newspapers, books. plays, songs and the contents which reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom associated with the French revolution.
However, the memory of the French revolution continued to inspire liberals, and, the liberal nationalists criticised strongly the new conservative order for its censorship on freedom of press.
Q.9. Discuss the causes of rise of secret societies in many parts of Europe.
Ans. During the years following 1815, the fear of repression by the autocratic conservative regimes drove many liberal nationalists underground. Many of these turned into revolutionaries and established secret societies. For example, Giuseppe Mazzini of Italy. The name of his secret society was ” Secret Society of Carbonari”. These secret societies had following objectives :
- To prepare and train the revolutionaries, to oppose monarchial forms of government.
- To spread the idea of liberty and freedom and fight for it.
- To strive for creation of nation states. It was a necessary part of their struggle for liberty and freedom.
Q.10. Evaluate the role of Giuseppe Mazzini as a revolutionary in post 1815 Europe .
Ans. Giuseppe Mazzini was a Italian revolutionary, who was born in Genoa in 1807. He became a member of Secret Society of Carbonari. He was sent in exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. Subsequently, he founded two more secret societies named :
- Young Italy in Marseilles
- Young Europe in Berne (1833)
The members of his secret societies were young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.
Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy couldn’t continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.
Mazzini’s vision of democratic republic frightened the conservative of Europe. That’s why Metternich (Austria) described him as the most dangerous enemy of conservative regimes and conservative social order.
Following Mazzini’s vision, many secret societies were setup in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.
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